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Генерал высказался за решение, которое «позволило бы спаять единство народов Западной Европы, имеющих общие традиции и взаимодополняющие экономики». По его мнению, «подобное единое «экономическое целое» могло бы включить в себя, помимо Франции, Бельгию, Нидерланды, Люксембург, возможно, Рейнскую область, возможно, Италию, Испанию и Швейцарию». Далее в отчёте о заседании 17 октября указано: «Генерал де Голль не скрывает трудностей реализации этой идеи, но не считает её нереализуемой, невозможной. Рене Мейер разделяет это мнение. Альфан считает, что создание экономического союза подобного рода обязательно повлечёт за собой во Франции глубокие и полезные для её экономики реформы. Генерал де Голль добавляет, что подобный проект может быть реализован лишь при тесном согласии c CCCР. Вероятно, для этого необходимы cоглашение с Великобританией и дружественные отношения с США. Одной из составляющих подобной конструкции в то же время должен быть контроль над военной промышленностью Германии. Генерал де Голль настаивает на том, что такой экономический союз не должен склоняться к автаркии и что он должен заключить с Соединёнными Штатами, Британской империей, СССР и Восточной Европой и т. д. – торговые соглашения. Он подчёркивает, что Франция сыграет важную роль в организации и функционировании Западноевропейского союза».

В дневнике Альфана также охарактеризован ход совещания 17 октября: «Монне развивает свою идею полностью объединённой Европы, состоящей из разных государств; Германия в таких условиях может быть разделена. Образуется некая Лотарингия, тяжёлая промышленность Европы помещается под международное управление, таможни отменяются. Де Голль посчитал эту концепцию химерической, несбыточной: «Нужно учитывать традиции. Никогда вы не сможете после войны поместить французов и немцев в единое целое. Наибольшее из того, что возможно создать, – это экономическое целое на западе Европы, включающее в себя Францию, Бельгию, Люксембург, Голландию, возможно, Рейнскую область, возможно, Италию. Это целое будет поддерживать союзнические отношения с Россией и с Великобританией. Последняя не сможет стать частью этого Союза, поскольку разрывается между Европой и своей колониальной империей. Это будет сделано без неё. Франция сможет сыграть во всём этом большую роль»[301]. Альфан утверждает, что тогда же де Голль поручил ему сформировать комитет, который должен был, изучив различные гипотезы, быстро подготовить доклад о «перспективах европейской политики» ФКНО.

Мнения комиссаров де Голль обобщил в циркуляре, направленном представителям «Сражающейся Франции» 30 октября 1943 г. В нём отмечалось, что Франция попытается в будущем договориться с Нидерландами, Бельгией и Люксембургом, а также, возможно, с Великобританией и Италией о создании «Федерации Западной Европы»[302]. Её частью должны были стать также Рур и Рейнская область.

Хотя и не следует преувеличивать разногласия между де Голлем и Монне, слово «федерация» они понимали по-разному. Де Голль рассчитывал, что при помощи будущих общеевропейских органов власти во главе с Францией страна сможет расширить своё внешнеполитическое влияние на континенте. По свидетельству Боссюа, который ссылается на переписку Монне с Массигли, оба комиссара, отстаивавших необходимость «согласованной политики европейских государств», т. е. неких форм интеграции послевоенной Европы, подозревали де Голля в нежелании по-настоящему добиваться этой цели[303]. Французская исследовательница В. Эйд справедливо отмечала, что де Голль замыслил новую Европу как «Европу государств» и точно уж не как «европейскую федерацию, в которой стираются особенности наций». По её утверждению, «в целом, официальные печатные органы «Свободной Франции» (лондонский Комитет и Комитеты свободных французов) не всегда высказывались в пользу идеи объединенной Европы и ограничения национальных суверенитетов. Это объясняется частично тем, что нацистская пропаганда присвоила себе тему восстановления Европы и нового европейского порядка… Свободные французы, для которых смысл жизни заключался в сопротивлении против Гитлера и Виши, с недоверием отнеслись к европейской идее, которая казалась им орудием на службе нацистской экспансии»[304].

Де Голль, не отрицая целесообразность и даже необходимость общеевропейского объединения, стремился поставить во главе него Французскую республику. В речи 18 марта 1944 г. в Алжире перед Консультативной Ассамблеей, он официально изложил свое видение будущего послевоенной Европы и формы ее организации[305]: «И тем не менее, Европа существует, осознавая свою значимость для человечества, уверенная в том, что сумеет устоять в океане выпавших на её долю бедствий и возродится ещё более умудрённой опытом своих испытаний, способной предпринять для мировой организации ту созидательную работу – материальную, интеллектуальную, моральную, проделать которую лучше неё не будет в состоянии никто, когда будет покончено с главной причиной её бед и расколов – неистовой мощью опруссаченного германизма. Именно тогда по велению Истории, Географии и здравого смысла Франция, её влияние, всё её величие приобретут превалирующее значение для Европы, которая будет искать для себя путей к восстановлению своих связей с миром. Продолжая вести вооружённую борьбу, правительство намерено в результате проводимой им политики всеми силами обеспечить Франции эту европейскую роль, которую она во имя всеобщей пользы призвана играть завтра. Однако для того, чтобы наш старый обновлённый континент смог найти равновесие, соответствующее условиям нашей эпохи, нам кажется, что должны быть сформированы некоторые объединения, конечно, без посягательств на чей-либо суверенитет. Что касается Франции, мы считаем, что некое «западное объединение», осуществлённое с нашим участием, главным образом на экономической основе, могло бы дать ряд преимуществ. Такое объединение, будучи дополнено Африкой, установив тесный контакт с Востоком и в особенности с арабскими государствами Ближнего Востока, законно стремящимися объединить свои интересы, – обладая в качестве основных артерий Рейном, Ла-Маншем и Средиземным морем, – по-видимому, мог бы стать основным мировым центром производства, обмена и безопасности».

В разговоре с П. Мендес – Франсом, комиссаром по делам финансов ФКНО, вскоре после своего выступления де Голль более откровенно рассказал о роли Франции в будущем европейском объединении: «Было видно, что он [де Голль – Н.Н.] долго думал об этом, и он одарил меня долгой речью о послевоенной Европе: «Ваши амбиции малы. Франция, Бельгия, Люксембург и Голландия вместе не обладают достаточным весом. К ним нужно добавить Италию, которая, конечно, избавится от режима Муссолини, и Испанию без франкизма»… Затем, очень быстро, он перешёл к основному, т. е. к Германии: «Не будет объединённого рейха, он будет расчленён… Ему никогда не вернут его арсенал: Рейнская область и Рур получат новый статус – гарант будущего. Известно, что репарации никогда не платят деньгами; их платят натурой; мы заставим людей Рура и Рейнской области работать под властью освобождённых стран, в течение одного поколения и больше… Рур и Рейнская область станут общим владением освобождённых западных стран: это будет Рейхсланд, как говорили немцы об Эльзасе и Лотарингии; чтобы сцементировать единство освобождённой Европы, хорошо бы ей предоставить какую-нибудь коллективную собственность. Той же цели служит общая армия. Единственная страна, у которой была и будет настоящая армия, – это Франция; Бельгия, Голландия дадут несколько батальонов, если им это доставит удовольствие. Затем мы принесём наш золотой запас (на тот момент второй в мире), нашу империю. Любой федерации нужен объединитель, и им может стать только Франция. Мы введём некоторые общие органы, ассамблеи и т. д. Но власть, лидерство – это Франция. И так мы сможем сопротивляться влиянию Америки и России»… Англия не являлась частью того единого целого, которое предполагалось сформировать. По сути он сохранил такое видение, хотя многие события не приняли предсказанного им оборота, и хотя Германия стала мощной реальностью. Де Голль не мыслил для себя Европы иначе, чем под властью Франции. Чтобы сопротивляться «англо-саксам», пусть Европа объединится и будет ведома страной, которая будет самой сильной. Поскольку Германия будет разбита и разделена, это – Франция»[306].

Речь де Голля 18 марта 1944 г. так или иначе освещается во всех работах по истории Франции и военного голлизма. Е.О.Обичкина отмечает антигерманскую направленность европейских планов генерала, который верил в способность Германии «быстро восстановить свой потенциал» и поэтому полагал необходимым «противопоставить ей западноевропейскую федерацию» с включением в неё помимо европейских стран – соседей Франции Рейнской области и Рура[307]. Американский биограф де Голля А.Л. Функ пишет о том, что, несмотря на его предложение коммунистам присоединиться к ФКНО весной 1944 г., генерал своим выступлением давал понять США и особенно Великобритании: «Он не переориентировал свою политику, не станет находиться под руководством Москвы и, напротив, усматривает возможность для формирования «западного блока» (эта инициатива была тонко рассчитана на то, чтобы заинтересовать британского премьер-министра)»[308]. При этом первоначально де Голль полагал, что создание западноевропейской федерации не помешает намеченному на конец 1944 г. заключению советско-французского договора. Французский историк П. Жербе называет речь де Голля 18 марта 1944 г. довольно пространный, носившей «очень общий характер». Но даже в таком – неопределённом – виде она вызвала протест советской стороны, которую председатель ФКНО намеревался использовать, чтобы «снивелировать то, что он называл распространяющимся господством англо-саксов»[309].

Вот почему, выступая на пресс-конференции 21 апреля, де Голль предложил «группировку западноевропейских стран с основными артериями Ла-Маншем, Средиземным морем и Рейном» включить в некую «международную организацию»[310]. Чтобы подготовить сближение с СССР и заключить с ним союзный договор, 7 мая 1944 г. в Тунисе де Голль недвусмысленно подчеркнул необходимость союза «с дорогой, могущественной Россией»[311]. 24 мая в беседе с советским послом А.Е Богомоловым Массигли доверительно сообщил: «Не стоит вопроса о том, чтобы задумывать европейскую организацию без участия СССР»[312].

Однако уже после открытия Второго фронта 6 июня 1944 г. Массигли по поручению де Голля в Алжире инициировал переговоры с британским министром-резидентом в Северной Африке Г.Макмилланом о необходимости создания западноевропейского блока[313]. В конце июля, находясь в Лондоне, Массигли пытался начать широкое обсуждение европейских проблем с Э.Иденом, но британский министр иностранных дел отказался озвучить своё мнение[314].

Осенью 1944 г., вскоре после освобождения Парижа и переезда туда образованного еще летом Временного правительства, в жизни Франции произошло несколько важных событий. 9 сентября было реформировано Временное правительство, пост министра иностранных дел в котором после отставки англофила Массигли занял Ж. Бидо. План де Голля-Бидо заключался в том, чтобы Франция активизировала свою внешнюю политику, играя роль арбитра и некоего связующего звена между западными и восточным союзниками, которые никогда не переставали быть соперниками. Германский вопрос оба политика стремились решить методом экономического и политического ослабления восточного соседа, которое рассматривалось как гарантия французской и общеевропейской безопасности. «Германская программа» де Голля содержала в себе положения «федерализации», т. е. расчленения Германии, эксплуатации ее экономического потенциала, присоединения Саарского угольного бассейна к Франции и интернационализации Рурского бассейна, «ставшего символом войны»[315]. Голлисты подчеркивали нежелательность восстановления централизации управления в Германии и предлагали воссоздать ее государственность в виде исторических земель, чтобы навсегда устранить немецкую угрозу для Франции.

23 октября произошло долгожданное дипломатическое признание США, Великобританией и СССР Временного правительства во главе с де Голлем. А во время визита во Францию в ноябре 1944 г. Черчилля и Идена Французскую республику пригласили участвовать в качестве четвёртого постоянного члена в Европейской консультативной комиссии, занимавшейся в том числе судьбой побеждённой Германии, однако голлистский план решения германской проблемы союзники отвергли. Тогда же, во время визита английской делегации в Париж, де Голль предложил Черчиллю создать «франко – британское ядро в Европе». По свидетельству генерала, Лондон не проявил интереса к этой идее и не захотел «связывать свою игру с нашей, считая себя в силах играть собственную партию между Москвой и Вашингтоном»[316].

21–22 ноября в Консультативной Ассамблее проходили очередные дебаты по французской внешней политике. Накануне визита де Голля в Москву, намеченного на первую декаду декабря, Бидо заявил, что Франция не собирается участвовать в «неизвестно каком западном кордоне, который отбросил бы вглубь континента всех, кому не досталось части побережья океана»[317]. В разговоре со Спааком Бидо также поставил под сомнение целесообразность формирования замкнутой западноевропейской федерации. В свою очередь де Голль в речи 22 ноября призвал к установлению «общеевропейского единства», строительство которого «начнётся с конкретных действий, объединяющих три полюса: Москву, Лондон и Париж», и ни о каком западном блоке не упоминал[318]. По утверждению Е.О.Обичкиной, голлисты стремились «заключить симметричные военные союзы с Великобританией и Россией… и оставить США вне европейской системы союзов»[319]. Тогда же, осенью 1944 г., Временное правительство активно обсуждало создание «военной и политической системы вокруг Рейна». В речи 22 ноября де Голль прямо связал решение германской проблемы и обеспечение общеевропейской безопасности со строительством единой Европы.

* * *

Однако в 1945 г. европейские проекты стали отходить на второй план, уступив место попыткам де Голля вернуть Франции ранг великой державы в свете активизации деятельности Большой Тройки: в феврале в Ялте и в июле-августе 1945 г. в Потсдаме лидеры СССР, США и Великобритании решали судьбы Европы и мира, а Франция на этих конференциях не присутствовала. В своем дневнике генерал с горечью писал: «Еще раз все происходит таким образом, что сначала все решают без нас, а потом уже спрашивают нашего согласия, не сомневаясь, что оно поступит»[320]. Крайне прохладно союзники отнеслись и к идее создания европейского объединения.

Черчилль в принципе благосклонно воспринимал планы европейского строительства, но участие в нем Великобритании ставило под сомнение преференциальные отношения с колониями и привилегированное партнерство с США. К тому же премьер-министр опасался появления «политического вакуума» в Европе после ухода американских войск и, наоборот, продвижения вглубь континента советских армий. Его идея учреждения политической межгосударственной организации Совета Европы или регионального объединения с тремя Советами (по Америке, Европе и Азии), подчинявшегося Высшему Совету трёх Великих держав, не нашла поддержки союзников[321]. Советское руководство, осознавая в 1945 г. нараставшие противоречия в Большой Тройке и стремясь к установлению контроля СССР над Восточной Европой, всячески противодействовало появлению общеевропейского сообщества. Враждебность высказывали и американцы. П. Жербе приводит несколько объяснений подобной позиции американской администрации[322]. По его мнению, Рузвельт опасался, что отсутствие США в европейской интеграционной группировке приведёт «к новому всплеску изоляционизма в стране, а в Европе – к господству Великобритании из-за слабости Франции, что обеспокоило бы СССР, последующие шаги которого, фактически уже поставившего под свой контроль всю Восточную Европу, было бы трудно просчитать». С другой стороны, в случае англо-советского сближения и их доминирования в Европе США «были бы отодвинуты на второй план».

В 1945 г., по мере нарастания противоречий в лагере главных держав-победительниц, риторика выступлений де Голля по вопросу европейского строительства меняется. Вновь появляется словосочетание «западный блок», а Западная Европа называется «единым географическим, экономическим, политическим и культурным образованием, ограниченным на севере, западе и юге морями, на востоке – бассейном Рейна»[323]. В речи 3 октября 1945 г. в Трире де Голль особо выделяет «людей Запада», которые «особым образом понимают друг друга»[324]. А в своем выступлении в Страсбурге 5 октября генерал уже говорит не об общеевропейском согласии, а о «западном единстве» и «западной цивилизации». Явно намекая на возражения советского руководства против учреждения «западного блока», он задается вопросом, кому могут угрожать «западные идеи, влияния разума и души»[325].

Подобный поворот в рассуждениях генерала де Голля кажется вполне закономерным. Во второй половине 1940-х годов в политические дискуссии вокруг строительства послевоенной Европы вмешался новый фактор, резко изменивший расстановку сил в мире – «холодная война». В этих условиях идея «единой Европы» трансформировалась в проекты интеграции западноевропейских государств, приверженных ценностям западного общества, рыночной экономике и политической буржуазной демократии. На активные проевропейские позиции перешла значительная часть политиков Старого Света, готовых отказаться от национального и государственного эгоизма, добиться франко-германского примирения и инициировать процесс объединения Западной Европы. Де Голль, безусловно, осуждал как действия сталинского руководства внутри СССР, так и его вмешательство в судьбу народов Восточной Европы, полностью попавших в сферу советского влияния. Он пытался поставить заслон на пути распространения «коммунистической опасности» вглубь Европы и видел одной из таких преград западно-европейскую группировку. Однако, будучи правым политическим деятелем и националистом, де Голль в первую очередь стремился возвратить своей Родине утраченный в годы войны государственный суверенитет и ранг великой державы, поэтому отвергал наднациональную форму объединения Западной Европы. По его убеждению, только тесное межгосударственное сотрудничество западноевропейских стран поможет им укрепить свои национальные основы, сбросить американскую опеку, восстановить свободу маневра на европейской и мировой арене.

В целом, стоит признать, что четкого плана европейского строительства в годы войны у де Голля не было. Он принял на вооружение некоторые основополагающие принципы концепции европеизма: добровольность, межгосударственное взаимодействие, безусловное признание западных буржуазных ценностей, начало сближения государств региона первоначально в экономической, а потом и в политической областях. Но такие вопросы, как членство отдельных европейских государств, формирование интеграционных органов управления, их функции и взаимодополняемость, отношения западноевропейского сообщества со сверхдержавами, место и роль в нем Германии, были слабо разработаны и аргументированы в середине 40-х гг.

Уйдя в отставку с поста председателя Временного правительства 20 января 1946 г., де Голль на долгих двенадцать лет лишился возможности оказывать непосредственное влияние на принятие внешнеполитических решений, в том числе и в европейском вопросе. Процесс интеграционного строительства начался без него. В 1952 г., после тяжелейшего послевоенного экономического кризиса, в условиях политических пертурбаций, разрыва союзнических отношений Великих держав и начавшейся «холодной войны», в западной части разделённой надвое Европы возникла первая интеграционная группировка из шести государств: Франции, ФРГ, Италии, Бельгии, Голландии и Люксембурга. Ею стало «Европейское объединение угля и стали» – реальное воплощение европейской мысли.

Naoumova natalia

Moscow, the parti communiste Français, and france’s political recovery[326]

Moscow’s view of France at the Liberation differed from those of Washington or London in four significant ways. First, France’s importance, though not negligible, was secondary. No Soviet leader or diplomat thought of France as a major power. Stalin opposed both French participation at the Yalta conference of February 1945 and a French zone of occupation in Germany. On 9 May 1945, only Eisenhower’s pressing request allowed the French to be included at the Soviet-organised surrender ceremony outside Berlin[327]. Moreover, whatever Europe’s medium-term future, securing a defensive glacis through the installation of pro-Soviet regimes in the East took priority, for Soviet leaders, over designs for Communist revolution in the West. If good behaviour there – holding back any revolutionary aspirations – ensured Anglo-American acceptance of Soviet hegemony in the East, the price was well worth paying.

Secondly, however, the Soviet Union, unlike the other two major allies, possessed a powerful client party in France, in the Parti Communiste Français. On one level, the PCF pursued the conventional aims of a party in a democratic system – policy achievements, office, and votes. At the same time the Soviet archives of the period testify to Moscow’s enormous influence on the PCF’s strategy and tactics, even during the period between the dissolution of the first Communist international organisation, the Comintern, in May 1943, and the foundation of its successor, the Cominform, in September 1947. Inevitably this influence was used in accordance with Soviet foreign policy goals.

Thirdly, France’s post-war economic predicament, of increasing concern to the British and Americans, was of marginal importance to Franco-Soviet relations. True, shipments of Soviet wheat reached France, and were made much of by the PCF, in the approach to the elections of June 1946. But the French traded relatively little with the Soviet Union, and looked to Washington not Moscow for economic aid.

The fourth difference lies in the Soviet attitude to de Gaulle, which was almost a mirror image of the British and American views. In Anglo-American eyes, the General’s major quality was his ability to contain the Communists; for the Soviets, whatever the accommodations of the moment, he belonged to the ‘reactionary’ camp. On the other hand, his prickly independence from the western allies was a clear recommendation for Moscow. Stalin had been a better ‘Gaullist’, at least since 1943, than either Roosevelt or Churchilname = "note" readier to recognise the Comité Français de Libération Nationale, set up in Algiers in June 1943, as a governmentin-waiting, and willing to accommodate the CFLN in Moscow in case of further difficulties with the ‘Anglo-Saxons’.[328]His signature of the Franco-Soviet pact in December 1944 should be viewed in this light.

The making of that alliance is the first focus of this chapter. Its significance, however, proved largely symbolic, especially after the end of hostilities in Europe. A more important aspect of Franco-Soviet relations, at least over the ‘long’ Liberation period, was the relationship between Moscow, the PCF, and the French political system. The vicissitudes of this relationship, from co-operation to Cold War, are covered in the remainder of this study, which approaches both questions from a Moscow perspective, using both official archives and the Soviet press.

The Franco-Soviet alliance

On 30 August 1944, Pravda published a message from Stalin to de Gaulle, president of the Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Française (GPRF): ‘On the occasion of the liberation of Paris, capital of France, we address to you… in the name of the peoples of the Soviet Union and of myself, friendly congratulations to the French people and our wishes for the most speedy liberation of France from the German yoke.’[329]The warmth of Stalin’s greeting was returned on 2 December, as de Gaulle’s arrived in Moscow in the company of his Foreign Minister Georges Bidault: ‘I am happy and flattered’, said the General, ‘to be in the capital of the Soviet Union and to offer the homage of France, ally of the Soviet Union, with a view to victory and a beneficial peace for the whole of humanity.’[330]De Gaulle’s stay, which lasted over a week, saw an impressive round of cultural events and diplomatic receptions, but above all substantive talks with Stalin, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, and other Soviet leaders.

That de Gaulle wanted a treaty of alliance was clear from his first contacts with Stalin and Molotov. ‘France’, he told the Russians, ‘understands that for the problem of the German danger to be settled it is not enough to resolve frontier issues. To prevent a new attack from Hitler an alliance of anti-German powers will be needed.’ When the Soviet leaders observed that a Franco-Soviet mutual assistance pact had been signed with the Laval government in 1935, de Gaulle remarked with some bitterness that he was not Laval, and expressed a strong wish to conclude an improved pact ‘which would include additional points’.[331]At his first formal talks with Stalin, he added that ‘The French know what Soviet Russia has done for them, and that Soviet Russia played the chief role in their liberation… The origin of France’s recent misfortunes lay in the fact that France did not have Russia at her side and lacked an effective treaty.’[332]

For de Gaulle, the attractions of a treaty with Moscow were both symbolic and practical. It would mark France’s return to great-power status, able to deal on equal terms with the Soviet Union, and thus by implication the British and Americans. It revived the Franco-Russian alliance of 1893, which had always been directed against Germany: the heart of the new treaty was a commitment to fight together to the final defeat of Germany and to prevent any resurgence of the German threat. Both de Gaulle and Bidault also hoped for Soviet help in pressing France’s aims for Germany, above all the detachment of the Rhineland from the rest of the country, the internationalisation of the Ruhr, and the economic linkage of the Saar to France. For the Soviets, an alliance offered three possible benefits. France’s commitment to fight on until final victory would hinder any realisation of Stalin’s nightmare – a separate Anglo-American peace with Germany. A treaty would reinforce the position, within France, of a leader who had shown both independence from Washington and London and a willingness, however circumstantial, to govern with Communists. And it would, Stalin hoped, further his Eastern European plans if de Gaulle could be persuaded to support the displacement of Germany’s Eastern border to the Oder-Neisse line, and the claims of the Soviet-backed National Liberation Committee (the ‘Lublin Committee’) to rule Poland rather than the Polish government in exile in London.

The Moscow talks of December 1944 form one of the great set-pieces of de Gaulle’s War Memoirs.[333]The account centres on de Gaulle’s own refusal to bow to pressure from the Soviets, especially on the Polish issue. His willingness to break off negotiations won him Stalin’s respect, and an alliance that did not compromise France’s honour by selling out Poland – a country where, in 1920, he had acted as a military advisor to a government at war with the newborn Soviet Union. Other authors are more sceptical. Werth, for example, claims on his reading of Soviet archives that de Gaulle had asked for an invitation to Moscow – rather than, as de Gaulle argues, responding to pressing offers from the Soviet ambassador to the GPRF, Alexander Bogomolov – and has Stalin embarrassing the General with probing questions on France’s economic and military recovery, which had hardly begun.[334]Even Lacouture, a more sympa thetic biographer, takes some of the gloss off de Gaulle’s account.[335]

Compared with the protracted negotiations on an Anglo-French treaty, however, the drafting process in Moscow was speedy. Bidault had passed a draft to Bogomolov, who had accompanied the French party, on 3 December; Stalin gave de Gaulle a favourable response in principle on 6 December; and Molotov passed the Soviet draft ‘Treaty of alliance and mutual assistance between the USSR and the French Republic’ to Bidault on the same day.[336]The core of both drafts was a common commitment to pursue the war to final victory, to refuse any separate peace, and to provide mutual assistance in any future conflict with Germany.

There remained, however, two potential stumbling-blocks. The first was the issue of Poland and the Lublin committee. The second concerned the extension of the alliance to the United Kingdom. Stalin had kept Churchill informed of de Gaulle’s visit since 20 November, and had asked for British views on a Franco-Soviet pact by telegram on 2 December, the day of de Gaulle’s arrival. The British Cabinet had discussed the issue two days later, and backed Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden’s preference for a tripartite Anglo-Franco-Soviet alliance. Churchill’s telegram to Stalin of 5 December supported such a treaty, as well as the inclusion of de Gaulle in any Big Three talks affecting France. Stalin’s reply, dated 7 December, agreed to propose a tripartite pact to de Gaulle.[337]

The two questions came together at the de Gaulle-Stalin meeting of 8 December. To de Gaulle’s direct question as to ‘whether Marshal Stalin considered closer relations between our two countries were necessary’, Stalin again agreed to the principle of a Franco-Soviet pact but added that ‘there are good pacts and there are better pacts. A tripartite pact onto which Britain was coupled would be better.’[338]De Gaulle refused the proposal, with some irritation, for three reasons. It appeared as an unacceptable intervention by Churchill in the sovereign conduct of French foreign policy; France’s position in a triple pact would inevitably appear less important than in a bilateral treaty; and de Gaulle viewed France’s differences with the Soviet Union – despite the Polish question – as less fundamental than the unresolved issues with the United Kingdom, notably over the Levant and Germany. Those differences, for de Gaulle, could be settled only in the ‘second stage’ of France’s construction of alliances – the third being the future United Nations pact with the United States and other powers.[339]

The Soviet records suggest that Stalin then used the tripartite idea as a bar-gaining counter to secure recognition of the Lublin Committee. ‘Now the British propose a tripartite pact’, he told de Gaulle. ‘Let the French do us a service and we will do the same for them. Poland is an element of our security. We have been talking with the French about this question for two days. Let the French receive the Paris representative of the Polish National Liberation Committee. We will sign a bilateral agreement. If Churchill doesn’t like it, too bad.’ When de Gaulle observed that ‘Stalin had won this game’, Stalin replied that ‘Winning is the purpose of playing – but France will win more.’[340]This account is sharply at variance with that of de Gaulle, who describes Stalin as a ‘good loser’ over the Polish issue.[341]

The pact signed on 10 December was a minimal text centred on Germany. Stalin secured no French support for the Oder-Neisse line within the treaty (though ultimately none of the western allies objected to it); de Gaulle won no Soviet backing for his German plans. Britain was left out, to no great regret on Churchill’s part.[342]France limited relations with the Lublin committee to an exchange of unofficial representatives to deal with practical issues, notably prisoners of war; but the identity of de Gaulle’s representative – Christian Fouchet, a trusted young Gaullist of 1940 pedigree – and the fact that the French, along with the British and Americans, effectively recognised the Lublin Committee as the government of Poland in August 1945, somewhat limits the real importance of France’s refusal to concede on this issue.

Pravda reported the meetings on 11 December in largely conventional terms, referring to ‘the many manifestations of sympathy, reinforced by the shared hardships of war, between the peoples of France and the Soviet Union’, and the talks between the French delegation, Stalin, and Molotov, on ‘the full range of problems relating to the continuation of the war and the organisation of the world’.[343]Of more interest are de Gaulle’s and Bidault’s official letters to Stalin, reproduced on 15 December. De Gaulle observed that the alliance would serve ‘to co-ordinate the military efforts of Russia and France with those of the United Nations with a view to safeguarding our two peoples from a similar catastrophe in the future’, while Bidault underlined the ‘close and permanent community of interests between our two countries’ which would ‘reinforce our will to win and guarantee peace in the future’.[344]In general, however, Pravda’s reports were relatively lowkey: while the outward events of the French visit were covered, there was no analysis of the treaty’s content, and little interruption to the paper’s staple diet of (victorious) war news, considered more important. Privately, Stalin told Averell Harriman, the American ambassador to Moscow, that he had found de Gaulle ‘awkward and stubborn’, as well as unrealistic in his aims for Germany.[345]French coverage, by contrast, was altogether more fulsome. The treaty dominated the first-ever issue of Le Monde, whose editorialist observed that ‘barely a few months after her liberation, France’s co-operation has been sought out by one of the clearest victors of the war’, that the alliance was ‘a further proof of the skill and far– sightedness of the head of the Provisional Government’, and that it would no doubt pave the way for a tripartite pact with Britain.[346]What neither side mentioned, finally, was the stake of the alliance for French internal politics. For the Soviets, it would enhance the status of the PCF; for de Gaulle, it would help keep the same party in check.

The Stalin-Thorez conversations

De Gaulle’s BBC broadcast of 6 June 1944, inviting the French to ‘fight the enemy with all the means at their disposal’ in the wake of the D-day landings, was echoed by a call to ‘national insurrection’ from the PCF’s Central Committee. In a few days the overall number of partisan units, grouped under the umbrella of the Forces Françaises de l’Intérieur (FFI), multiplied several times over, reaching nearly half a million men, very many of them Communists. Militarily, the results of the insurrection varied from the tragic (premature risings, provoking ferocious reprisals, in Tulle and other provincial towns) to the dashing and successful (in Lille, Marseilles, Limoges, Thiers and above all Paris). It remained to be seen which authority the FFI would recognise. Officially, the answer was clear: since April 1944, two Communists had sat on the CFLN and then the GPRF, as part of a unified Resistance movement headed by de Gaulle (who gave a ministry to Charles Tillon, commander of the main Communist Francs-Tireurs et Partisans, on 9 September). Officially again, from 9 June the FFI were under the command of the French army, and de Gaulle ordered the dissolution of their senior command structure on 28 August. On the ground, things were less simple. The FFI sought to maintain their autonomy from the regular army, while the comités de libération, often drawn from their ranks, disputed control over localities with the prefects and special commissioners appointed by the GPRF: hence de Gaulle’s extensive provincial tours in autumn 1944, aimed at reinforcing the GPRF’s authority across France.[347]

These two competing authorities could not coexist for long. On 28 October de Gaulle ordered, by a decree of the GPRF, the disarmament and dissolution of all armed groups other than the army and the police. The two Communist ministers accepted the decree; criticism of it within the PCF was initially muted; but the Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR), dominated by Communists, attacked it. So did many of the militias directly concerned, with growing support from the PCF press. The Communist leadership, indeed, talked as if it was preparing a revolution: on 15 November Jacques Duclos, the party’s acting leader in the absence of its secretary-general Maurice Thorez, called for the summoning of ‘estates general’ (a reference to 1789), locally and then nationally, for the exercise of local power by ‘elected and not appointed bodles’, and for a regime in which the people’s representatives could ‘be dis– missed at any moment’.[348]De Gaulle’s decree remained ‘a dead letter’ a month after its promulgation.[349]But the logical corollary of this – a full insurrection against the GPRF – never took place. De Gaulle, supported by the majority of the population, and on the Left by the Socialists of the SFIO (Section Française de l’Internationale Ouvrière), was obviously disinclined to play the role of Kerensky. Tens of thousands of Allied troops remained in France. And no instructions for a rising had come from Moscow, either from the Kremlin or from Thorez.

Thorez had deserted from the French army in 1939 and been exfiltrated to the Soviet Union, where he had resided since. His return, decided in Paris and Moscow, testifies both to the extremely close relations between the Kremlin and the PCF and to the exceptional sensitivity of the contemporary French political situation.

In the autumn of 1944, Thorez had twice requested de Gaulle’s authorisation to return to France, but the General had ignored his messages.[350]

On 21 October Georgy Dimitrov, former Comintern secretary-general and future head of Bulgaria’s first post-war government, then also in exile in the USSR, wrote to Molotov about this one-sided correspondence. While a campaign for Thorez’s return had started in France, said Dimitrov, ‘hostile elements’ were spreading the ‘myth’ of his desertion in 1939 and claiming that he had had links with the Germans. Meanwhile, Dimitrov claimed, Thorez continued to enjoy Soviet hospitality, while the Soviet press remained ‘totally silent’ on the problem, creating ‘a very embarrassing situation not only for Thorez but also for ourselves’, which could best be remedied via an article on the subject (which Dimitrov submitted for Molotov’s approval) in Pravda. Molotov’s comments, handwritten on the draft, indicate a clear intention to apply gentle pressure on de Gaulle: ‘The article does not explain clearly where the problem lies. Why can Thorez not return? Who is refusing him entry?’[351]

This form of indirect influence – and, no doubt, the situation in France produced results within a week. On 28 October – the same day as the decree dissolving the militias in France – de Gaulle wired Roger Garreau, France’s ambassador in Moscow, to say that ‘The government has decided to quash the verdicts of French courts-martial reached before 18 June 1940 and relating to persons who subsequently took part in the national Resistance movement. This decision gives M. Maurice Thorez the right of re-entry into France. You may inform him of it. However, before a visa can be delivered a few days’ wait will be necessary until the decree is published in the Journal Officiel.[352]

During this wait, on 19 November, Thorez had a long conversation with Stalin. The length of their meeting, the detail of Stalin’s instructions on how the Communists were to behave in liberated France, and the presence of both Molotov and Lavrenti Beria all indicate the extreme importance placed in Moscow on the PCF’s activities – as well as the strengths and limitations of Stalin’s view of French politics under the GPRF.[353]For Stalin, ‘the most import ant question was how to get through the current difficult period when the Communists were not masters in France, and counted enemies as well as friends; and how to rally their own forces while preventing the forces of reaction from rallying theirs.’ Stalin punctuated the conversation with questions to Thorez, whose answers he used as the basis for his own orders. At first, he simply asked Thorez how he viewed the French situation, while expressing revealing perplexity that former prisoners of war (such as Bidault or Juin) had been given important posts in the GPRF. Thorez’s answer focused on the PCF’s relations with the French Socialists, and noted the SFIO leadership’s refusal to co-operate with the PCF despite the Communists’ success in winning working-class Socialists to their cause and despite Socialist commitments to ‘unity of action’. The Socialists, complained Thorez, were denigrating the PCF’s war record by suggesting that their heroic role in the struggle against the Germans dated only from 1941.

Stalin’s reply broached the central theme of his advice to Thorez by stressing the PCF’s continuing need for allies against the ‘forces of reaction’ and warning against excessive criticism of the SFIO. De Gaulle, Stalin argued, might well try to isolate the PCF and to act against the Communists; even if personally unwilling, ‘he will be pressed to do so by the Americans and the British, who want to create a reactionary government in France, as they do everywhere they can’. The Communists, he stressed, ‘are not strong enough to take on the struggle against the reactionary forces on their own’, and should therefore seek allies among Radicals, Socialists and ‘other elements’ to form a ‘bloc against the forces of reaction’, allowing the PCF to ‘defend itself now and, when the situation had changed, to go onto the attack’. For that reason, they ‘should not seek to identify who, among the Socialists, said what and when against the Soviet Union’. Even if ‘we know the Socialists well’ as ‘the left wing of the bourgeoisie’, the overriding need now was to avoid the PCF’s isolation. The bloc should also create close but discreet links with trade unions and with youth movements. ‘The youth movement’, added Stalin, ‘should not be called the Communist youth. Some people are frightened of flags, and this should be taken into consideration.’

Perhaps the most remarkable moment in the conversation came when Thorez mentioned that ‘the patriotic militias that had formed the main force of the Resistance under the Occupation’ had, for the moment, kept their arms. In reply, Stalin warned Thorez to: take account of the fact that there now existed in France a government recognised by the Allied powers. In these conditions it was difficult for the Communists to have their own armed forces alongside those of the regular army, as their need for such detachments was now open to question. As long as there was no Provisional Government, and as long as no zones to the rear of the battle-front fell under the authority of such a government, there was some point in the existence of such units. But what was their use now that there was a government with an army? Such arguments could be used by the Communists’ enemies, and would seem convincing to the average Frenchman. The position of the Communist Party was therefore weak and would continue to be so as long as it kept its armed forces; its position was simply hard to defend. That was why the armed units needed to be transformed into a more political organisation; as for the weapons, they should be hidden.’[354]

Stalin added that he had mentioned this point because he felt the PCF had not understood how the situation in France had changed, and accused them of pursuing their old policies, notably in attacking the Socialists and trying to hold on to their weapons, oblivious of the new context in which de Gaulle headed a government recognised by Britain, the Soviet Union, the United States, and other powers. Because the PCF was not strong enough to ‘strike at the head’ of this government, it would need to change strategy, gather its forces, and seek allies so as to be able to claim, in the event of an offensive from reactionary forces, that it was not just the Communists who were under attack, but the whole people. Such allies would also be of use if the situation allowed the Communists to go onto the offensive. To attract them, the PCF needed a broad platform including industrial reconstruction, jobs for the unemployed, the defence of democracy, and punishment for the Vichyites who had acted to suppress it.

Stalin returned again and again to the need for the PCF to be both strong in itself and, crucially, to be surrounded by allies, to thwart its enemies’ attempts to isolate it. He was equally cautious on foreign policy issues, and advised against the French Communists’ adopting the dismemberment of Germany as a slogan, at least unless public opinion and the French intelligentsia clearly favoured it. Outwardly at least, Stalin justified his caution in relation to domestic politics: advocating such a policy without a broad supportive consensus could place the PCF ‘in the same camp as the worst reactionaries’, and in danger of condemnation by association. Hence the need to take careful soundings before moving in this direction. It might be added in passing that the Soviets themselves, while wanting the Oder-Neisse line, had no wish for a divided Germany, and gave rather little support to the GPRF’s positions on this point.

The relationship between the two men was clearly indicated by the close of their conversation. Asked if he had any further questions, Thorez replied in the negative but assured Stalin that he ‘would always need his advice’. Returning to Paris, Thorez immediately called on the French to unite their forces for victory and to ‘struggle for a free, democratic and independent France’. By the end of January 1945, he had become the clear and effective advocate of the disbanding of the militias in accordance with the GPRF decree, and of the subordination of the CDLs to the GPRF.[355]

Thorez had received a brief mention during de Gaulle’s visit to Moscow, when Stalin recommended him to the General as ‘a good Frenchman’, adding ‘In your place, I would not put him in prison… at least, not right away!’[356]But Thorez’s return to Paris on 27 November, and the orders Stalin had given him, proved in many ways more significant than the Franco-Soviet alliance. Stalin had ensured that the PCF would be led by his own hand-picked chief; and for the moment at least, France’s Communists would work within the ‘bourgeois’ political system. The importance of this was not lost on de Gaulle, On Thorez’s death in 1964, he wrote to the Communist leader’s son that ‘whatever he may have done before and after, Maurice Thorez answered my call and, as a member of my government, contributed to the maintenance of national unity’.[357]

Communists in government, 1944–1946

Throughout the existence of the GPRF, France’s Communists did their utmost to implement Stalin’s directives of November 1944. They remained within government in order, as they said, to ‘bring the war to a victorious conclusion’ and to ensure ‘the co-operation of all the patriotic forces towards France’s democratic renaissance’. On one level, they were extremely successful. The PCI established itself as France’s premier political party, heading the poll at two out of the three national elections (of October 1945 and June and November 1946) with over a quarter of the vote – ahead of their Socialist rivals and over 10 points above their own best pre-war result of March 1936. Progress at the ballot-box was paralleled by an explosion in membership. Out of a pre-war total of some 300,000, the PCF had counted barely 5,000 members in the winter of 1939-40. Their numbers had risen to 60,000 by August 1944, to over 200,000 the following month, and to nearly 544,000 by April 1945; they would exceed 785,000 by the year’s end.[358]This was, to a degree, part of a wider international movement. The prestige of the USSR, as the country which had made the greatest sacrifices to defeat Nazi Germany, was at its peak.[359]Communist ideas had won widespread popularity, not least because state control and egalitarianism were readily associated with the wartime mobilisation which had secured victory. In nine countries of Western Europe, including Italy, Belgium, Finland and France, as well as in four Latin American countries, Communists were in government. And in central, eastern, and south– eastern Europe the Communists had won power on the heels of the Red Army. Within France, meanwhile, the influence of the Resistance and of the democratic and antifascist forces linked to it were at their height; the PCF, as one of the principal forces of the Resistance, could not but reap the benefits. Its leading role within the main trade union, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), itself experiencing a membership boom (with close to four million members), also helped the party put down deep roots in French society.

But France’s Communists were less successful in implementing the central thrust of Stalin’s directives – the construction, under their leadership, of a broad-based left-wing alliance. Parallel to the string of electoral victories ran a series of battles over the new constitution and over the formation of governments; in these, the PCF often faced a stark choice between the isolation that Stalin had warned against and substantial concessions to its ‘weaker’ partners of the SFIO and the third major governing party of the Liberation era, the Christian Democrat Mouvement Républicain Populaire (MRP).

The divided Left, 1945

The alliance strategy won an initial success at the municipal elections of April-May 1945. Here the PCF ran broad-based lists labelled ‘republican, democratic, and anti-fascist union’. After the first round of voting it called for ‘a bloc of all the republican, democratic and secular forces’ for the second ballot.[360]The pre-election Communist-Socialist alliance secured victories in over 5,500 municipalities, over three times more than the prewar total (cf. Chapter 5); Communist mayors headed 1,462 municipalities, including, for the first time, big towns such as Toulon, Nantes, Limoges and Reims.[361]Pravda took note with satisfaction, underlining that the victorious ‘anti-fascist’ lists consisted of candidates proposed jointly by the PCF and the SFIO, as well as Resistance organisations and, in some areas, the Radical Party.[362]

At the same time, the PCF leadership heeded Stalin’s counsels of moderation and his instruction to build a left-wing bloc. The party’s watchwords were national economic reconstruction, the punishment of traitors, real guarantees of democratic rights and freedoms, and the drafting of a new constitution – all of which would require a broad union of national forces around the programme of the CNR. Speaking at the PCF’s first postwar congress (the Tenth Congress, held in Paris from 26–30 June 1945), Thorez declared that ‘the renaissance of France is not the business of a single party or of a few statesmen, but a problem to be solved by millions of French men and women, by the whole nation’.[363]Three weeks later he offered proof of his party’s commitment to workplace discipline when he told France’s miners that their first ‘duty as a class’ was to ‘produce, produce, and again produce’; the CGT did not hesitate to break strikes where they occurred.[364]

In party terms, the leadership counted primarily on the Socialists to avoid the isolation that Stalin had warned against. At the Tenth Congress, Thorez underlined ‘the urgent need to create a strong French Labour party which would bring together Socialists and Communists and constitute the basis of a union between all republicans and all true Frenchmen’.[365]Shortly afterwards, a PCF delegation made merger proposals to the SFIO leadership. But the Socialists were in no hurry. Many feared that their party would be weakened or (as in some East European countries) simply swallowed up by the Communists in a united structure. Léon Blum, the former prime minister, whom Stalin had called a ‘charlatan’ even in 1936, during the Popular Front era, and who now returned the compliment by referring to the PCF as a ‘foreign nationalist party’, reinforced these concerns after returning from deportation in Germany at the end of hostilities.[366]His growing influence within the SFIO leadership helped tip the balance at the SFIO’s Congress of August 1945: favourable to ‘unity of action’ with the PCF, the Socialists voted against a merger. Such a union might not have produced comparable results to those obtained in Eastern Europe. But the decision was a setback for the PCF’s strategy as set out by Stalin; and from that summer, relations between the two parties began to deteriorate.

Partial isolation: the referendum of 21 October 1945

The same balance of electoral success with political setbacks was discernible at the referendum and elections of 21 October 1945, the first vote at national level since the war. With 26.2 per cent of the vote (against the MRP’s 24.9 and the SFIO’s 23.8), and the largest parliamentary group, the PCF was France’s leading party. Pravda again noted the result with satisfaction, explaining that ‘the French people know very well the role played by the Communist party in the Resistance organisations, in the struggle against the Hitlerite occupation, and in the restoration of democratic principles’.[367]

The double referendum held concurrently with the elections, by contrast, produced a less welcome result for the PCF. The referendum (itself a break with tradition, since no referendum had been held in France since the fall of the Second Empire in 1870) concerned the powers of the new legislature, and specifically its right to draft a new constitution and the limitations, if any, to be placed on its mandate. Only the Radicals opposed any attribution of constituent powers: they preferred a straight return to the Third Republic, under which they had held a pivotal position. The PCF and the CGT took the opposite position, seeking open-ended and constituent powers for the new assembly. De Gaulle, however, proposed, in the name of the GPRF, that those powers be limited. The new assembly would have normal powers of a parliament; it would draft a new constitution; but its mandate would last just seven months and its constitutional draft would be submitted to a new referendum.[368]‘De Gaulle has openly thrown his gauntlet into the balance’, noted Pravda, apparently quoting from the French press.[369]Supported by the SFIO, the MRP, and other ‘bourgeois’ groups from the Resistance, this project was opposed, unsuccessfully, by the Communists and the Radicals, as well as the CGT. At the referendum, 95 per cent of the voters backed constituent powers for the new assembly, revealing the Radicals’ extreme weakness; but two-thirds also approved de Gaulle’s proposal to limit its powers, showing – in line with Stalin’s warnings – the relative weakness of the PCF when isolated.

A sense of isolation was aggravated by the behaviour of the SFIO during the campaign. Pravda noted gloomily that ‘The Socialist Party’s campaign was almost entirely directed against the PCF. The Socialist Party rejected… the hand held out to it, and preferred an unnatural alliance with the MRP. The outcome was more than unfavourable for the Socialists.’[370]Three days later, the main culprit was identified by name: ‘Léon Blum has repeatedly spoken in favour of working-class unity and co-operation with the Communists, but every act of the election campaign was directed against the PCF. At the same time, the organisations within the Socialist Party that really pursued working-class unity and co-operation with the Communists were punished by the Socialist leadership.’[371]

The strains of tripartisme, 1945–1946

A further occasion for frustration with the SFIO came with the formation of a new government. The 1945 elections had given the PCF and the SFIO together an absolute majority in the Constituent Assembly. Following parliamentary tradition, under which the majority parties form a government headed by a leader of the strongest party, the PCF’s Bureau politique proposed a PCF-SFIO coalition government with Thorez as Prime Minister, or even – as a fall-back position – with a Socialist at its head. The Socialist leadership refused on both counts, insisting that they would only take part in a tripartite (PCF – SFIO – MRP) government headed by de Gaulle.

Mindful of the Kremlin’s advice not to fight the Socialists openly, the PCF withdrew its proposal; the Constituent Assembly duly (and unanimously) invited de Gaulle to form a government. The General proposed to include representatives of the three biggest parties, but refused to appoint PCF ministers to the three most sensitive posts – Foreign Affairs, Defence, and the Interior – provoking a serious conflict. In the ensuing com– promise, the Communists made major concessions, settling for the ministries of Arms Production, Labour, National Economy and Industrial Production, and sat in government alongside the SFIO and the MRP as well as de Gaulle’s nonparty supporters. Thorez had no portfolio but the rank of Ministre d’État, second in the government’s order of protocol. This tripartite coalition would be the model for almost all French governments until May 1947.

Within weeks, however, a new conflict had erupted – between the Left and de Gaulle in the first instance, but then between the PCF and its partners. The Socialist – Communist majority demanded cuts in military spending; de Gaulle, resenting any interference by the Assembly in the government’s dayto-day business, resigned on 20 January, condemning himself to a twelve-year crossing of the desert, and the regime to a new crisis. Again the PCF proposed Thorez as Prime Minister at the head of a Socialist-Communist government, Pravda observing that if the Socialists stood by their pact with the PCF, the conflict would be quickly resolved.[372]Again the Socialists refused the Thorez candidacy, which was also rejected categorically by the MRP. And again the Communists conceded, agreeing to participate in a tripartite government under the Socialist Félix Gouin.

In principle, Socialist – Communist unity fared better when it came to drafting the new constitution. Their agreed project proposed a parliamentary system with wide-ranging powers for a unicameral National Assembly, largely formal functions for the president, and guarantees of political and social rights as well as a secular state. Approved by the Socialist-Communist majority over the MRP’s opposition, the draft was put to referendum on 5 May 1946. Opposed in the country by the MRP as well as the Radicals and conservative groupings, it went down to defeat by 53 per cent of the voters to 47. This was a set-back for the PCF, which had also still failed to create the united left-wing bloc Stalin desired. For the Communist press in Moscow and Paris, the blame, again, lay with the Socialists. Pravda reported that the PCF had ‘carried practically the whole burden of the campaign’, with Socialist support for the new constitution remaining ‘soft’; it noted that the PCF daily L’Humanité had attributed the result to ‘the Socialists’ refusal to accept Communist proposals for union and unity of action between the two parties.’[373]

Similar complaints marked the campaign for elections to the second Constituent Assembly, held on 2 June 1946. The PCF’s political isolation was now noted openly by Pravda and illustrated with a claim that when the Interior Minister had ordered the removal of election posters from unauthorised sites, only the PCF’s posters had been taken down, leaving those of other parties, including the fiercely anti-communist Parti Républicain de la Liberté (PRL), intact.[374]Such practices were cited to explain the PCF’s descent into second place at the elections, with 25.9 per cent of the vote to the MRP’s 28.2. But Pravda also dwelt on losses by the Socialists (who fell back to 21.1 per cent), seen as resulting from ‘the anti-communism of the Socialist leadership’, which had ‘sown confusion among the party’s leaders and local organisations’. L’Humanité, it added, had underlined the ‘need for the union of workers and democratic forces in France against the reactionaries, who have not disarmed’.[375]

That summer’s events in France worried the Soviet press. The MRP used its electoral success to propose its leader Georges Bidault for the premiership. Izvestia saw the hand of Blum in the post-election manoeuvring, oddly claiming that he sought a single-party MRP government, able to ‘back the anti-communist campaign that certain political parties are currently leading’.[376]Commenting on the signs of anti-communism appearing within French society against the background of the developing Cold War, Pravda observed that on the day before the vote on the premiership, ‘a group of young Fascist sympathisers attacked the offices of the PCF Central Committee in Paris, looting the bookshop in the same building and burning its stock’, and added that ‘the police showed complete negligence’ in the matter.[377]

The Constituent Assembly voted Bidault into the premiership on 19 June 1946 by 384 votes. The 161 Communist Deputies abstained, neither welcoming Bidault as premier nor wishing to move into opposition. It was ‘a pity’, Duclos observed (and Pravda agreed), that France had foresworn the opportunity of ending the provisional regime by rejecting the first draft constitution, but the Communists, as good republicans, respected the people’s will. The new government could only be provisional. On the constitution, the PCF was open to concessions, except on two issues: the secular character of the state (a reference to the MRP’s Catholic loyalties) and the powers of the second chamber (a reference to the MRP’s intention to revive the Senate in some form).[378]

This relative self-restraint allowed the PCF to join the Bidault government, which was approved by an overwhelming majority in the Constituent Assembly on 26 June: Thorez and Gouin both became vice-premiers. But the government’s composition, with nine MRP ministers, seven Communists, six Socialists, one member of the UDSR and one with no party allegiance, reflected a weakening in the positions of the PCF and the SFIO, which now controlled only slightly over half the portfolios between them. Meanwhile de Gaulle had joined in the constitutional debate: his Bayeux speech of 16 June called for strong leadership at the top in what resembled a presidentialised republic. France’s anti-communist forces were now divided between Gaullists, main– stream conservatives, and the right wing of the MRP. Yet de Gaulle was always the PCF’s most formidable opponent; his return to the political scene inevitably gave the leadership pause for thought.

For the PCF, the two years since the liberation of Paris presented a mixed picture. Its membership and electorate had grown to levels unimaginable before 1939; ministerial office had won it respectability, plus the chance to place Communists in key administrative posts. But its wooing of the Socialists had been rebuffed; its claims to lead the government, however democratically legitimate, had been vetoed by the Socialists and the MRP; its preferred constitutional project – whose lack of checks and balances offered the best opportunity for any party that dominated the National Assembly to install itself durably in power – had been rejected by the voters; and the MRP had overtaken it (briefly, as it would turn out) at the ballot-box. Above all, perhaps, the ‘left-wing bloc’ was no nearer being achieved than in 1944. It was against this background of setbacks that the PCF received further advice from Moscow.

Stepping back: the Frachon-Suslov meeting and the October 1946 referendum

Within the ongoing contacts between the PCF and Moscow, the meeting of 19 June 1946 between Mikhail Suslov, a member of the CPSU’s Central Committee, and Benoît Frachon, joint secretary of the CGT and an unofficial member of the PCF’s Bureau politique, is especially important. Suslov sent a record of the conversation, marked ‘Top Secret’, to Molotov, stressing that Frachon had asked, in the name of the PCF leadership, for advice from the CPSU, though without raising any specific questions.[379]

Suslov’s record is chiefly remarkable for Frachon’s self-criticism over the PCF’s implementation of Stalin’s directives. The referendum campaign, he said, had seen a bitter struggle between the forces of ‘democracy’ and those of ‘reaction’, which had gone onto the offensive. But the PCF had run ahead of events, notably by demanding the premiership for Thorez. Intended to rally the largest possible number of Communist sympathisers, and ultimately to give ‘the masses’ a practical demonstration of Communist-led government, the slogan ‘Thorez au pouvoir’ ‘failed to take account of the fact that there are millions of Frenchmen who vote for the Communists but who don’t yet want them leading the government’. The PCF had also underestimated the forces of reaction, who, with the ‘profascist’ PRL at their head, had used ‘Thorez au pouvoir’ to play on hesitant voters’ fears. Although the Party had ‘taken a step back’ after the referendum, it had still faced an unprecedented anti-communist campaign at the June elections, led not only by the Right but by the Socialists, MRP and Radicals as well, which had left the PCF isolated. Even though Frachon talked of the PCF’s ‘victorious’ electoral campaign, his closing statement still leaves the impression that the Party was seeking to recognise its errors and its failure to heed Stalin’s warnings of November 1944. ‘Avoiding the isolation of the Party, holding on to positions gained, and surviving the difficulties of the current period’ were the bases of the PCF’s line. ‘Avoiding isolation’ meant seeking to extend the Party’s influence with the peasants, working with the petty bourgeoisie, continuing to work for the ‘unity of the working class’ (presumably a reference to competitive co-operation with the Socialists) and establishing relations with ‘democratic elements’ in the Radical Party and the MRP.

The PCF’s behaviour at the referendum of 12 October 1946 on the second (and definitive) draft Constitution corresponded to the strategy outlined by Frachon. The MRP, despite its former self-definition as the party of ‘fidelity’ to de Gaulle, sealed a lasting split with the General by refusing to back the strong presidential regime he had advocated at Bayeux. It was then obliged to reach an agreement with the Communists and Socialists. The second draft included the upper chamber the MRP had always wanted. But its powers (and the president’s) would be limited, and the state’s secular character would be guaranteed.[380]This compromise was backed by all three of the tripartite parties, and the PCF threw itself into the Yes campaign. On 7 October the Central Committee issued a text, reproduced in Pravda, calling on ‘all French patriots’ to ensure ‘the triumph of the Constitution of the French Republic’, against the ‘murky forces of reaction’ backed by ‘the trusts’ who opposed the restoration of republican principles in the Constitution now, as they had betrayed French democracy in the past. Pravda also, significantly, underlined the common ground between the PCF and the SFIO, reporting a speech by Vincent Auriol, the Socialist president of the Assembly, underlining the need to end the pro– visional regime and the dangers of a No vote.[381]

A similar theme – the PCF’s alignment with France’s ‘democratic forces’ against the ‘reactionaries’ who opposed the constitutional draft – is found in the treatment of de Gaulle during the campaign. Thus Pravda reported Thorez’s carefully-worded attack on the General, who, ‘whatever the respect owed him for past services to the country’, had now lined up with a ‘reactionary coalition’ including former supporters of the 1938 Munich agreements with Hitler, and of the Vichy regime.[382]After polling day, Pravda again underlined that by supporting a strong executive and warning of ‘disorder and anarchy’ if the constitution were approved, de Gaulle had provoked negative reactions not only from the PCF (which now branded him ‘the representative of the reactionary forces’) but also from former supporters in the MRP and in newspapers like Le Monde and Le Figaro.[383]

The referendum result, in which the constitution was approved by 53.5 per cent of those voting (or 36.2 per cent of the registered electorate) was hailed in Pravda as a ‘victory for democratic forces’ in France, and a ‘double defeat’ for ‘the reactionaries’. The ‘democratic forces’, the PCF chief among them, had first, at the price of significant concessions during the drafting, successfully defended articles defining the ‘republican and democratic’ nature of the regime, and had then prevailed in the ‘intense political struggle’ of the campaign. The three parties – PCF, SFIO, and MRP – that had backed the constitution now faced a further ‘fierce struggle’ at the parliamentary elections against the ‘reactionary camp’ – the PRL, the right wing of the Radicals, the UDSR, and the Union Gaulliste – which had opposed the text.

A ‘hard and important test’, requiring ‘the union of all the truly democratic forces of the country’, awaited France’s renascent democracy, especially as ‘outside influences’ were encouraging the reactionaries.[384]It would be hard to find a better exegesis of Stalin’s instructions to the PCF of two years earlier.

In the short term at least, the Party’s behaviour in the autumn 1946 appeared to pay off. It had played a significant role in drafting the constitution, with several clauses bearing its mark. And at the November 1946 elections it regained its leading position, winning a historical record score of 28.2 per cent. Yet the PCF had still not managed to implement the core of Stalin’s instructions – to unite the Left under its leadership, ready to move onto the offensive and take power in due course. Indeed, a final Thorez candidacy for the premiership failed – not, this time, because it was refused by the Socialist leadership, but only because the SFIO was unable to enforce voting discipline on its own Deputies, 23 of whom opposed the PCF leader. The PCF was again forced to fall in behind Socialist prime ministers (Blum in December 1946, and Ramadier in January 1947) and, with the constitution ratified, a Socialist president (Auriol). Despite these concessions, within a year the Party would find itself more isolated than ever, out of government and backing a fierce wave of strikes that shook, but did not topple, the new regime.

Into the ‘ghetto’, 1947

The PCF’s displacement from the seat of government to the political ‘ghetto’, where it would remain through (and beyond) the remaining life of the Fourth Republic, was played out in five main locations: the scenes of armed colonial conflict in Madagascar and Indochina; the shopfloor of Renault’s Boulogne-Billancourt works; the heart of political Paris, the Chamber and the Council of Ministers; the founding conference of the Cominform at Sklarska-Poreba, in Poland; and finally, in November-December 1947, across the whole of urban and industrial France.

Colonial conflicts, analysed in this book by Martin Shipway, undermined the Communists’ position in the Ramadier government from the moment it took office on 22 January 1947. War had broken out in Indochina a month earlier; it was a Communist Defence Minister, François Billoux, who was now responsible, at least nominally, for the armies fighting Ho Chi-Minh’s Communist-dominated nationalist movement.[385]By the early spring of 1947 the PCF was mobilising public opposition within France to the war; Billoux refused to stand up in the Chamber in homage to France’s troops fighting there; and when Ramadier sought a vote of confidence on his Indochina policy on 22 March, he was supported by the PCF’s ministers, but not by its other Deputies, who abstained. A week later an insurrection broke out in Madagascar its savage repression led the PCF ministers to walk out of the Council of Ministers on 16 April.

But it was wages policy that provoked the final break. Whatever the benefits of some policy initiatives backed by the PCF – the greater security enjoyed by public-sector workers after nationalisations, and the foundation of France’s welfare state – the PCF’s support for wage restraint alienated workers. That was already visible in the slow rate of party membership renewals that spring, as well as in the CGT’s disappointing results in elections to governing bodies of the social security system.[386]A strike over wages at Renault, organised by a small Trotskyist group from 25 April, left the CGT, after four days, with little choice but to join in. And when Ramadier, by now resolved to force the issue, asked for a vote of confidence over wages policy on 4 May, all of the Communist Deputies, including the ministers, voted against the government of which they were a part. It is likely that they expected Ramadier to resign; in the ensuing negotiations to form a government, they could demonstrate the impossibility of ruling the country without Communist co-operation. Instead, Ramadier found non-Communist replacements for the PCF ministers, and carried on governing with the support of Socialists, MRP and Radicals.[387]

With the dismissal of Thorez and his colleagues on 5 May 1947, the PCF was out of office and friendless: Stalin’s strategy of November 1944 had clearly failed. The PCF leaders, however, went on trying to implement it for five more months. On the international scene, the PCF evoked the ‘division of the world into two blocs’, but as a danger to be avoided rather than a fait accompli – even if the summer saw increasingly hostile statements towards ‘American imperialism’, especially after the Soviets had finally withdrawn from negotiations over the Marshall Plan, as well as (unsubstantiated) claims that the Americans had engineered the Party’s removal from government. In domestic politics, the Communists now did nothing to restrain outbreaks of industrial unrest; the aim was to prove how necessary their participation in government was. Thus, the emphasis at the Eleventh Congress, held from 25 to 29 June, remained the PCF’s status as a ‘party of government’ and the need to bring the Socialists (if not the MRP) back to a left-wing alliance. Even on 22 September, Thorez was still calling for the PCF’s return to office within a ‘government of democratic union’.[388]

Just as L’Humanité was carrying Thorez’s message to thousands of Communist readers, Duclos was gathering with leading figures from the Italian and East European Communist parties in Sklarska-Poreba. What they heard from the Soviet Politburo member Andreï Zhdanov could leave them in no doubt that Moscow’s line had changed radically. The world, said Zhdanov, was now divided into ‘two camps’ – the ‘imperialist and anti-democratic’ camp aimed at the ‘world domination of American imperialism’, and the ‘anti-imperialist and democratic’ camp, led by the Soviet Union, which sought the ‘undermining of imperialism, the consolidation of democracy and the eradication of the remnants of fascism’. Particularly dangerous in this confrontation was the ‘treacherous policy of right-wing Socialists like Blum in France, Attlee and Bevin in England, Schumacher in Germany’, who, as the imperialists’ ‘faithful accomplices’, were ‘sowing dissension in the ranks of the working class and poisoning its mind’.[389]It followed that alliances with such traitors, as practised until May by the French and Italian parties, were a crass error. The French and Italian comrades now stood accused of legalism, opportunism, and parliamentarianism, as well as a soft line towards the Marshall Plan, and were forced to make a thoroughgoing self-criticism before going home.

The PCF digested the Zhdanov line within a month. Thorez reproduced it at length in his report to the Central Committee on 29 October, regretting the Party’s ‘slowness’ in analysing the new international situation. No longer were the SFIO and MRP placed, as a year earlier, in the ‘democratic’ camp: now all non-Communist forces, from Socialists to Gaullists, belonged to the American party’.[390]The new line was translated into action in France’s workplaces and streets, on the back of rising working-class discontent resulting from falling living standards. Now the PCF proposed to lead industrial action, through its CGT majority, and to add political demands to wage claims. On 12 November the CGT’s Central Committee linked a virulent attack on the Marshall Plan (henceforth an ‘attempt by warmongering American capitalists to enslave Europe’)[391]to calls for strikes in support of a 25 per cent wage rise. The strike wave that gripped France for the next four weeks involved some 2.5 million workers and an exceptional level of violence. Marseilles and other southern towns fell, albeit briefly, into a state of quasi-insurrection; CGT militants derailed the Paris-Lille express with the loss of sixteen lives. The Ramadier government fell on 22 November. But its successor, headed by Robert Schuman, held firm; the Socialist Interior Minister Jules Moch proved ferocious in his use of police and armed forces against strikers, adding further poison to his party’s now execrable relations with the PCF; the moderates in the CGT drifted back to work after three weeks; and the strike formally ended on 10 December. The PCF had made a significant demonstration of force; but it ended the year more isolated than ever, with the CGT now split by the defection of its moderates to form a new union, Force Ouvrière. In conventional political terms, the policy pursued since the Liberation was in tatters. But the autumn U-turn had returned the Party to Moscow’s good graces. A meeting with Stalin in Moscow on 18 November – three years almost to the day since their conversation of 1944 – confirmed Thorez as the leader who would take the PCF into its long crossing of the Fourth Republic desert.[392]

Conclusion: policy, office, votes – and Moscow

A conventional political party in a democratic system faces continual and difficult choices between ‘policy, office, or votes’.[393]Office is attractive to party leaders for the opportunities it offers to achieve policy goals, as well as for party patronage and personal advantage.[394]But the realisation of policy goals is always subject to constraints, whether political (for example, in relation to coalition partners) or economic and financial. In the long run, to dilute or sacrifice policy goals in the face of constraints simply to remain in office may lose votes, temporarily or permanently; a spell out of office may serve to revitalise a party (through the revision or reaffirmation of policies) and win back electoral support.

The PCF’s record in the Liberation era can be analysed from this perspective, On the one hand, it was inevitable that a party openly committed to the transformation of French society in the interests of the working class would have difficulty keeping working-class support indefinitely when governing at a time of great economic hardship. In that sense, the PCF’s departure from government in May 1947 was decided at Billancourt rather than Washington or Moscow. At the same time, the PCF drew important benefits from its time in office. Building on its Resistance record, it established a status – not held hitherto – as a party of government. It claimed credit for major policy achievements: many of the social transformations of the Liberation era, outlined in this book by Herrick Chapman, owed something to the activities of Communist activists, Deputies, and ministers, and earned the party a durable capital of goodwill among workers. The new nationalised industries became strongholds of CGT and PCF activists; local elections – despite setbacks in October 1947 – gave the party a network of municipalities, especially in the suburbs of major cities; both lasted for decades. The PCF’s roots within French society, even at the dawn of the twenty-first century, owed much to the Liberation era.[395]

But the PCF was not a conventional left-wing party; it was defined by its relationship to Moscow. This had two consequences. First, as is clear from the Soviet archives, it took orders from the Kremlin. These orders did not coincide with the party’s spontaneous preferences; several weeks might be required to assimilate them; but obedience always prevailed. In 1944– 45, the PCF aspired to a strategy of confrontation and even revolution; Stalin, through Thorez, made it behave like a conventional party. In 1947–48 the PCF leadership, at least, had grown rather attached to their mainstream status; Moscow obliged them to undertake ‘mass actions’ (especially political strikes). Secondly, the Soviet link, and the suspicions it provoked among non-Communists, inevitably shaped the PCF’s position in the French political system. Even with the wartime alliance surviving – uneasily – on the world stage, and the tripartite PCF – SFIO– MRP coalition governing France, the Soviet link, more than anything else, disqualified the leader of France’s largest party from the premiership, on three separate occasions. And as the world slipped into Cold War it ensured that the PCF’s exclusion from office, far from being the brief absence hoped for by Thorez, would last thirty-four years.

Наумова Н. Н

«Независимые» на пути к власти (1944–1951 гг.)[396]

«Независимые», или традиционные правые – это различные группировки умеренных, возникшие в освобожденной Франции на обломках некогда всесильных, а после Второй мировой войны переживавших упадок и политическое угасание довоенных правоцентристских либеральных объединений Демократический Альянс (ДА) и Республиканская Федерация (РФ). «Независимыми» их стали называть во второй половине 40-х годов, когда в движении умеренных начала выделяться группа «независимых республиканцев», вокруг которой в 1948 г. произошло объединение части традиционных правых в партию Национальный Центр Независимых. В 1951 г. на ее основе возник Национальный Центр независимых и крестьян (СНИП) – крупнейшее правоцентристское объединение Четвертой Республики, включавшее в себя всех представителей лагеря умеренных.

Сразу же по окончании войны слабые, малочисленные традиционные правые, не способные выдвинуть яркие лозунги реформирования и обновления общества, казалось, были обречены на жалкое существование и политическую гибель. Однако уже через шесть лет после Освобождения «независимые», учредив СНИП, стали играть ведущую роль в складывавшейся правоцентристской коалиции (1951–1955 гг.), а их лидеры – А. Пинэ, Ж. Ланьель, Р. Коти – в результате всеобщих выборов 1951 г. получили высокие государственные посты.

В центре настоящего исследования – проблема возвращения к власти традиционных правых («независимых»). Главную свою цель автор видит в выявлении и объяснении тех причин и обстоятельств, которые помогли умеренным группировкам, полностью дискредитированным в глазах французов во время войны, вновь встать во главе Франции и возродить свои идейно-политические ценности.

Хронологические рамки исследования охватывают период с момента освобождения французской территории в 1944 г. до складывания в 1951 г. правоцентристского блока во главе с «независимыми», в том же году пришедшего к власти.

История умеренных, или «независимых» достаточно хорошо изучена во французской историографии[397]. В работах же советских историков о них обычно писали в уничижительном тоне как о «консервативных» и «реакционных» формированиях, сохранивших в неприкосновенности «принципы экономического либерализма» довоенных умеренных[398]. И лишь в последние годы в отечественной науке появился ряд публикаций, в которых предпринята попытка дать более объективную оценку движению «независимых», изучить историю отдельных партий, вошедших в СНИП, проанализировать деятельность его известных лидеров (А. Пине, Ж. Ланьеля)[399]. Представляется интересным и необходимым исследовать еще и такой аспект истории «независимых», как возвращение традиционных правых к власти в годы Четвертой Республики.

* * *

В освобожденной Франции, жаждавшей политических перемен и широких социально-экономических реформ, к власти пришло правительство трехпартийной коалиции, включавшей в себя ФКП, социалистическую партию (СФИО) и Народно-республиканское движение (МРП). Следуя основным положениям программы Национального Совета Сопротивления, коалиция и глава Временного режима генерал Ш. де Голль намеревались наказать вишистских преступников и их сообщников, национализировать крупные предприятия, банки и некоторые отрасли промышленности, ввести широкую систему социального обеспечения, демократизировать политический строй[400]. Страна жила ощущением скорых перемен, желанием активно участвовать в их проведении, строить новое общество, не оглядываясь назад в то уже далекое довоенное прошлое, которое являлось «золотым веком» умеренных.

Вторая мировая война резко изменила положение умеренных. Многие из них поддержали сотрудничавший с оккупантами режим Виши и его главу – маршала Петэна. Практически все депутаты РФ и многие лидеры ДА проголосовали 10 июля 1940 г. за предоставление всей полноты власти Петэну, а потом некоторые из них вошли в его правительство, например, руководитель ДА П.Э. Фланден. Те умеренные, которые отказались поддерживать Виши, были немногочисленны и, хотя их представители – А. Мюттер от РФ и Ж. Ланьель от ДА – даже входили в Национальный Совет Сопротивления, участие традиционных правых в движении Сопротивления оказалось незначительным.

В результате, после освобождения страны умеренные оказались в полной растерянности: их позиции были серьезно поколеблены сотрудничеством с правительством Виши, партийные структуры распались, многие известные лидеры подверглись судебному преследованию за пособничество оккупантам. В глазах общественного мнения умеренные выглядели главными виновниками поражения Франции летом 1940 г. и вынуждены были нести ответственность за участие в правительстве Виши и за неучастие в движении Сопротивления. По словам известного французского политолога Р. Ремона, в 1945 г. они были «отвергнуты избирателями, покинуты своими бывшими сторонниками, оттеснены от власти; казалось, им больше нечего ждать от будущего»[401]. Произошла серьезная дискредитация идейно-политических основ правоцентристских партий: их идеалов, политической традиции, идейных установок. Умеренные попытались интегрироваться в изменившуюся и пугающую своим «радикализмом» действительность. Но рассчитывать на поддержку избирателей в послевоенной Франции могли лишь те партии, которые открыто высказывались за перемены. Умеренные же оказались неспособны адаптироваться к условиям нового морально-психологического и политического климата. Все их усилия воссоздать или, может быть, объединить ДА и РФ не дали желаемых результатов[402]. Таким образом, на правом фланге партийно-политической сцены Франции образовался некий политический вакуум: быть правым считалось немодным, если не позорным.



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