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• публичные обсуждения;
• расширение прав и возможностей граждан в самоуправлении.
Принятие решений в такой рамке происходит после обсуждений с самими жителями, а также с широкими практиками подотчетности и обратной связи. Участие граждан в принятии решений представляется как педагогическая практика и служит тому, чтобы формировать ценности самоуправления, сообщественности (consociation) и ответственности за общее благо.
Практики публичного обсуждения городских проектов являются одним из ключевых методов привлечения граждан к управлению, что может осуществляться, в частности, посредством совместного моделирования для коллективного решения общественных проблем. Моделирование состоит из следующих стадий: информирование, публичные слушания, фокус-группы, опросы общественного мнения.
Интересно, что формулировка «совместное моделирование» — это метод анализа проблемы путем построения причинно-следственной модели с привлечением стейкхолдеров» — не может не вызывать ассоциаций с теорией изменений, которая аналогично включает причинно-следственную модель с учетом интересов всех вовлеченных сторон и используется для внедрения оценки социально-экономического воздействия на длинных проектах изменений (в том числе городов будущего).
Наиболее широкие возможности для вовлечения граждан в принятие решений существуют там, где решения непосредственно и явно изменяют жизнь граждан, последствия решений наиболее очевидны, то есть порог экспертности относительно низкий. Эту сферу принятия государственных решений принято называть местным самоуправлением. Ключевой фактор успеха и автономности местного самоуправления — это доступ к формированию местного бюджета.
Таким образом, помимо совместного моделирования, ключевым инструментом участия граждан в управлении городом являются практики партисипаторного (инициативного) бюджетирования.
В рамках проекта Министерства финансов России и Всемирного банка по развитию инициативного бюджетирования в России были собраны обзоры лучших мировых практик. Отдельной частью обзоров являются практики инициативного бюджетирования в малых городах (Хачатрян и др., 2020).
Представляется, что город будущего, с соблюдением рамок 15-минутного города, будет являться именно малым. Позитивными чертами такого города являются:
• наличие плотной сети социальных контактов;
• локальный, а не глобальный, характер городской идентичности;
• относительно меньший уровень эксклюзии социально уязвимых категорий;
• возможность проводить обсуждения с достаточной представленностью граждан;
• доступность прямых каналов коммуникации между органами местного самоуправления и жителями.
Как отмечают авторы обзора, суть практик партисипаторного бюджетирования «состоит в развитии эффективной системы взаимодействия органов местного самоуправления и общества через активизацию прямого участия граждан в планировании местного развития, в том числе в определении приоритетов расходования средств местного бюджета и в поддержке инициатив граждан в решении вопросов местного значения».
В России инициативное бюджетирование реализуется в основном по модели Программы поддержки местных инициатив (ППМИ). В рамках этой модели жители вовлекаются в определение приоритетных направлений расходования бюджетных средств, могут софинансировать важные для себя проекты, а также контролировать ход их выполнения. Однако, эта модель является региональной, а не локальной.
Одним из примеров реализации практик партисипаторного бюджетирования в России на локальном уровне является опыт городского округа Лабытнанги (ЯНАО). В основном это проекты развития городской среды и создания инфраструктуры для людей с особыми потребностями. Интересно, что особенностью этого проекта стало требование к инициаторам в виде обязательного софинансирования деятельности в рамках бюджета в размере не менее 3 % от выделяемых средств. Проекты проходят экспертизу в Проектном офисе, который включает экспертов и волонтеров, а потом выносятся на голосование жителей. Также Проектный офис занимается планированием деятельности, информированием и обучением, а также участвует в подготовке голосования по проектам.
Таким образом, культура соучастия превращает человека из потребителя в соавтора продукта, субъекта городского развития. Наличие таких ценностных установок способствует реализации инноваций снизу-вверх, а также позволяет стимулировать развитие локального сообщества, создавая ткань городов будущего и обеспечивающего реализацию всех выше перечисленных элементов существующих концепций городов будущего.
The "Foundation" of the City of the Future: Key Trends and Design Approaches
Vladimir Vainer, Ivan Smekalin
DOI 10.55140/2782-5817-2022-2-S2-30-41
The concept of the City of the Future is the concept of integrated urban development, which implements a systematic approach to sustainable development and ahead-of-the-market conceptual and planning solutions to create a comfortable, safe and environmentally friendly urban and social environment. Experts from the Positive Changes Factory offer their vision of what the approaches to developing concepts for the City of the Future might be.
Vladimir Vainer
Ivan Smekalin
The topic of the "City of the Future" was actively developed by famous architects throughout the twentieth century in many countries. Cities of the future appeared in the descriptions of numerous literary works and on movie screens. The topic got a new lease of life in the twenty-first century with the emergence of new technological and social solutions. Today, the term "city of the future" has a dual meaning and application: it is used to refer both to real projects using actual urban planning and technological solutions, and to conceptual projects of an exploratory and research nature.
Conceptual projects are interesting because they do not operate with a set of tools and techniques that can be implemented today, but provide an opportunity to look into the future, which so far is a likely prospect, depending on the development scenario the humanity chooses in the next decade.
BIOPHILIA
British architect Norman Foster, winner of the Pritzker Prize (considered the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in architecture) is most commonly called as the architect of the future. It was Foster who in the 1970s modeled an energy-efficient hi-tech building made of glass and steel. However, today his ideas of architecture are based on the concept of "biophilia" — the natural proximity of people to nature and natural materials. The architecture becomes focused on the principles of a focus on health, a connection to well-being and a holistic perception of the building. The architect’s skyscrapers can be perceived as vertical cities, where floors act as streets with full social infrastructure, which is located not just on the lower floors.
NON-EXTRACTIVE ARCHITECTURE
The biophilia element aligns well with the notion of "non-extractive architecture," a new type of architecture that does not deplete the Earth’s resources. Its concept was presented by Joseph Grima, co-founder of the Italian research studio Space Caviar, at Dezeen 15 festival The key idea is that architecture should not create external negative effects for third parties. This applies not only to carbon emissions and energy consumption issues, but also to ecosystem sustainability, community preservation, and avoidance of labor exploitation. The author of the concept says that the construction industry generates 40 % of carbon emissions, and Western companies claiming sustainable development actually outsource the negative effects — that is, they still cut down forests, but not in their home countries, but in the countries of the "Global South." Timber transportation further adds to environmental damage.
"YES IS MORE".
Speaking of innovations in urban planning, it is impossible not to mention Bjarke Ingels of Denmark, who is also often called the architect of the future. The principles of Ingels’ projects are: to build for eternity, not for "disposable" architecture; a large landscaping area; multifunctional nature (from social infrastructure in residential complexes to a sports and entertainment complex on the roof of a garbage incineration plant). Ingels himself says that he designs a living environment with the psychological needs of the individual in mind and with the creation of benefits for society. In his manifesto[23], presented in the form of a comic book, the architect cites the evolutionary formula "survival of the fittest" and proposes an architecture that can help humanity adapt to the changes of the future. The title of the manifesto is "Yes Is More", meaning that by saying yes to society, one is saying yes to oneself and the future.
Another interesting element of Bjarke Ingels’ philosophy, which can be applied to all potential projects of the city of the future, is that the city is not finished content; it is a form, which can be adapted to conditions that are unknown in advance, and take into account the public good.
THE 15-MINUTE CITY
The concept of the 15-Minute City is that all the places a resident needs are within a 15-minute walk or ride by last-mile transport[24] (bicycle, scooter, electric scooter, etc.). Places for living, study, work, recreation, sports and health facilities are not divided into "bedroom" communities and business districts, but are mixed within the framework of a single district, thus avoiding daily commute.
The concept emerged during the development of the New York City master plan in the 1920s and had the following characteristics:
• only local roads can be located within a neighborhood, and all highways must be placed outside the neighborhood;
• the school must accommodate all children in the neighborhood and be accessible without crossing major roads;
• each neighborhood must have its own park;
• stores should not be located in the center, but on the perimeter of the neighborhood.
In 2021, this model was revived during the discussion of the master plan of Paris with the social researchers. The authors claim that it is designed to increase proximity and social interaction, as well as to boost solidarity and good neighborly relations (Moreno et al., 2021).
This was also the logic behind the "Cities of the Future" concept proposed by the Gladway Foundation for the Development of Media Projects and Social Programs. In 2016–2020, as part of the Citi Foundation’s Sustainable Cities Program, the Gladway Foundation implemented the idea of neighborhood centers within a walking distance in Moscow. According to the authors of the concept, neighborhood centers are the foundation of cities of the future, creating a "social fabric" for economic and territorial development. "Without neighborhood centers
The «15-minute city» can be the basis for the creation of the City of the Future.
Interestingly, "My Neighborhood" city program, currently implemented in Moscow, is also based on the concept of a 15-minute city. This was announced by Mayor Sergey Sobyanin on the sidelines of SPIEF-2021, in an interview with "Russia 24" TV channel.
The size of the "15 Minute District" is an area of 3x3 kilometers (900 hectares). "This area is small enough for a single large developer to complete. But construction companies usually specialize in one single thing (housing, offices, etc.), while here we have to build everything at once," says co-founder and chief architect of UNK project design bureau, member of the Union of Moscow Architects
Summing up this part of the review, let us emphasize: the 15-minute city as a concept can be the basis for the creation of the City of the Future (by even a single developer). In addition, this concept is the closest to the implementation of pilot projects. The principles mentioned above must also be respected: the natural proximity of people to nature (biophilia), non-extractive architecture, building for eternity, the city as a form that can be adapted to conditions that are unknown in advance, and take into account the public good.
THE SAN MARINO DECLARATION
Environment and sustainable development are becoming the key topics affecting the full range of design solutions; they are present in brand new concepts of the city of the future, as well as in those that follow up on the development of well-known approaches.
The model of an environmentally, socially and economically sustainable city most often acts as the foundation for designing the cities of the future (Malyshev, Korobkova & Solodkov, 2021). This model is directly related to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. The bare-bones agenda for a sustainable city is the "smart city" modename = "note" efficient use of resources through the introduction of technological systems, a better quality of life through improved services, transport and information accessibility. It is worth noting that this model generally does not take into account the social component of the city, while focusing mainly on the infrastructure and technological aspects.
In 2022, Norman Foster is launching a UN declaration of the principles for sustainable and inclusive urban design and architecture, that would be the equivalent of the Hippocratic Oath for architects. The document called the San Marino Declaration includes the following principles of urban planning:
• people-centrality, social responsibility and inclusivity;
• cultural identity, values, and heritage;
• resource efficiency and circularity;
• safety and health;
• respect for nature and natural systems and processes;
• people-smartness;
• inter-disciplinary cooperation and networking, engagement[26].
THINKING ABOUT THE FUTURE FROM THE FUTURE ITSELF
Going beyond the boundaries of urban planning concepts, it is important to note at least two other authors — Benjamin H. Bratton, head of his own Terraforming research program, and Nick Srnicek, political philosopher of the accelerationist movement.
Bratton’s book includes a quote by writer and director Chris Marker: "The naive American contemplates the sky; the Russian … settles in the sky and contemplates the earth." According to Benjamin H. Bratton, it suggests an analogy about the need to think about the future from the future itself rather than the present. This book focuses on the millennial event horizon, and it also addresses themes echoing the motif of non-extractive architecture: how to terraform[27] the Earth so that it becomes habitable for human life and remains so for as long as possible, while avoiding projects with a negative effect.
Nick Srnicek describes the future as a radical acceleration of technological labor substitution through innovation and the introduction of an unconditional basic income. The humans are seen as creative individuals, and the cities as a platform for innovation.
The pioneers of integrated territorial development in Russia were Territorial Development Agencies (TDA) — the first wave of the ITD boom began with them in 2001–2005. According to the government’s plan, the TDAs were to take on the most difficult work of coordinating the activities of landlords and tenants in large areas. It was, first of all, the coordination of urban planning issues and engineering support. As a result, each territory would have a single management, transport, engineering and architectural concept.
The reason why the TDAs failed was that they were too far ahead of their time: neither the legislation, nor the resource base or the financial system were prepared for their successful implementation — the real estate market was yet to reach a new quality level. The main problem was that, in fact, the TDAs never received any effective leverage over the owners of land plots or any real authority. The city administration at the time also did not have the resources or the desire to deal with these clearly challenging tasks.
Integrated territorial development projects of the second wave (2005–2008) were often announced on agricultural land purchased by developers (greenfield development). The scale of hundreds of hectares and several million square meters of residential and commercial real estate was astounding. Even in a growing market, many of these projects looked overly optimistic in terms of timing and opportunities for the market to absorb such volumes. The issues of utilities and infrastructure were barely sketched out in such projects.
By 2008, literally every Russian region felt obliged to present an integrated territorial development project. Most of these were announced by private developers or partnerships. As part of these projects, the developer was to prepare urban planning documents, prepare the territory from the engineering point of view, to provide road infrastructure, and then build up on its own or invite other investors to build.
Identity research and development are becoming part and parcel of integrated territorial development. Urban identity is built on a sense of belonging to a place and an urban community.
According to the Presidential Decree "On the national development goals of the Russian Federation until 2030," it is necessary to ensure the annual commissioning of 120 million square meters of housing by 2030. What this housing will look like will determine the image of the Russian cities in the future. The Integrated Territorial Development Standard was developed by the Russian Ministry of Construction and DOM.RF together with Strelka KB by order of the Russian Prime Minister. The principles of the standard include[28]:
• Functional diversity. Developing districts with extensive street retail, combining residential, office and service functions;
• Compact and dense development. Takes into account the human scale through medium-rise buildings and plenty of open spaces;
• Health and Safety. Reduced traffic, high air quality and the ability to spend leisure time in public spaces all year round;
• Comfort of movement. A variety of routes and a balance between different types of travel, efficient public transport;
• Flexibility and autonomy. Variation in the use of buildings and land through structural planning solutions;
• Comfortable housing. A variety of layouts and types of living environments, along with high-quality common areas as an incentive for residents to jointly manage the house and surrounding territory.
Currently, more and more developers in Russia are moving away from the reproduction of Soviet-style precast-concrete neighborhoods. Developers are starting to use new urban planning approaches and standards, which meet the public’s modern demands and take into account changes in the social, political, economic, cultural and informational spheres. Increasingly often one can meet the desire to search for new, people-oriented pilot solutions and concepts, opposed to the vector of developing territories in the interests of production or administrative and economic logistics. It is important to consider the strengthening of agglomeration as an important concept of spatial planning in Russia. The legal status of agglomeration is rising, becoming more significant than the municipalities and regions and effectively starting to determine the development direction and format of their territories for the coming years.
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