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Another important detail. The human brain may be described as a finite-state automaton but how to reconcile this with the highly dynamic nature of human behavior? The solution turns out to be simple. In many cases, dynamics is a cyclic activity. For a computer, this is triggered by some event, then maintained by an algorithm. In the brain, also some control signal is involved, but it isn't a short pulse. Instead, it is a long strobe and activity continues while this strobe remains active. Moreover, recall that nervous signals are digital-analog so the strobe may change its amplitude and regulate the strength of output actions or their frequency. Continuing the example with walking, humans don't think about single steps. They are generated by low-level servo control. The next step is automatically launched when the heel hits ground at the end of the previous one. Dynamism of walking is maintained by spinal gear while central control sends just 2 static commands: walk or stop.
After this introduction, let's try and describe human software in details. For a computer, there is a hierarchy of programming languages. The first one was The Language Of Assembler or just Assembler which consists of instructions that are immediately supported by the processor hardware of the computer in question. The next level contains languages of system programming. The most known is C that was conceived as a universal Assembler which should work on different machines. Further up will be application languages to write software for end users and particular application domains. Typically, the languages of lower levels are used to create a programming tool for the next level upwards. That is, when you use a single operator of an application language, it employs several elementary commands and instructions of lower levels. As a result, very complicated and clever programs are composed of a few very simple instructions. Hence, we need to seek for such most elementary internal actions supported by brain hardware.
The most obvious are memory read/write operations. Humans can remember separate images and later recall them. In addition, they can remember associations between 2 images. Then, when the first is presented, heteroassociative memory returns the second.
The next function is evaluation. The limbic system receives input from different sensory channels and generates a positive or negative drive depending on how the current situation compares to expectations. These drives work as start/stop instructions which are important for asynchronous architecture.
Now add various methods of data processing implemented in structured multilayered neural nets and you will get a computer with a decent set of instructions which may be used so as to develop sophisticated programs.
System software and applications
Newborn humans are virtually helpless. Can't walk, even stand. Unable for coordinated actions. Moreover, they don't know elementary actions themselves. On the other hand, it is well known that if a human hadn't learned any language at early age, he can't do it as an adult. Seemingly, human learning is arranged similarly to installation of computer software. An operating system comes at the beginning. Accordingly, you need to learn some basic skills first. Then, the rest will be added on this foundation.
Meanwhile the difference is substantial too. A computer comes with a ready instruction set and electronic circuits for algorithmic processing. Creation of human system software begins with creation of a discrete processor on the basis of the analog neurosubstrate. This firmware operates in accordance with principles outlined in Formal neurocomputer.
The rest of system software constitutes what is known as "culture". It includes such elements as habits to wash your face or clean your teeth, preferred clothes and dishes, usual time when you go to bed and wake up, etc. The most characteristic feature of a culture is its language. As in computers, system software divides into that which supports individual behavior and that for communication and cooperation (networking). Each nation has its unique traditions of interaction.
Finally, when a person has more or less remembered these components, it's time for professional education. That is, installation of application software begins. Computers have many programming languages. Each was developed for a certain class of applications. In humans, a natural language serves as a universal one. Nevertheless, each profession develops its own dialect with special terminology and even a specific style of thinking.
List of Figures
Fig. 1 – Fig. 6.
Brain_Anatomy.png
By BruceBlaus – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46604899
Description: Brain Anatomy. Animation in the reference.[1] This image was donated by Blausen Medical.
Date: 25 January 2016
Author: BruceBlaus
Reticular_formation1.png derived from:
By Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; Zlir'a – Own work on basis of Skull and brain sagittal.svg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18359962
Date: 12 February 2012
Author: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator; Zlir'a
295px-Brain_bulbar_region.png
By Image:Brain human sagittal section.svg by Patrick J. Lynch; Image:Brain bulbar region.PNG by DO11.10; present image by Fvasconcellos. – Image:Brain human sagittal section.svg by Patrick J. Lynch, modified to match Image:Brain bulbar region.PNG by DO11.10., CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3046626
Description: The corticobulbar (or corticonuclear) tract is a white matter pathway connecting the cerebral cortex to the brainstem (the term "bulbar" referring to the brainstem). The 'bulb' is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata. In clinical usage, it includes the pons as well.
Date: 7 November 2007
Author: Fvasconcellos
Wikimedia file: Thalamus_image.png
Description: Thalamus. Images are from Anatomography maintained by Life Science Databases(LSDB).
Date: 19 September 2009
Author: Images are generated by Life Science Databases(LSDB).
Permission: CC-BY-SA-2.1-jp
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.1 Japan license.
Wikimedia file: Basal_Ganglia_Anterior_Unlabeled.jpg
Description: Coronal cut of anterior section of the Brain showing basal ganglia.
Date: 24 May 2016
Author: Andrewmeyerson
Permission:
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Wikimedia file: Neural_systems_proposed_to_process_emotion.png
Description: Schematic briefly summarizing neural systems proposed to process emotion, highlighting structures that are visible on the medial surface of the brain. Papez's (1937) original circuit (A) was expanded upon in the concept of the limbic system (B) to include a variety of subcortical and cortical territories (MacLean, 1952; Heimer and Van Hoesen, 2006). (Structures like the anterior insula and nucleus basalis of Meynert, which are not visible on the medial surface of the brain, are not represented here). Images modified from Papez's original drawing.
Date: 20 May 2014
Author: Barger N, Hanson KL, Teffer K, Schenker-Ahmed NM and Semendeferi K
Permission:
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.
Fig. 7 – Fig. 10.
Copyright (c) I. Volkov, November 25, 2015. All rights reserved.
Fig. 11.
Derived from: Caudate_nucleus.gif
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7894172
Description : English: Caudate nucleus. Images are from Anatomography maintained by Life Science Databases(LSDB).
Date: 25 September 2009
Source: from Anatomography, website maintained by Life Science Databases(LSDB).
Author: Images are generated by Life Science Databases(LSDB).
Permission: CC-BY-SA-2.1-jp
Fig. 12 – Fig. 14.
Copyright (c) I. Volkov, May 10, 2019. All rights reserved.
Images used for the cover.
By Dchordpdx – Own work, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=64427061
By GerryShaw – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17500647
By Amyleesterling – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65952135
By Le Sun, Xu Han, Shigang He – http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0019477, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28976534
By https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_images/e3/3b/399a931769f646604693f3c6256f.jpgGallery: https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/L0002018.htmlWellcome Collection gallery (2018-03-31): https://wellcomecollection.org/works/m2d4erhg CC-BY-4.0, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35861114
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